chronological 1250

1248-1254: The Seventh Crusade.
• Archbishop of Nicosia Eustorge de Montaigu dies at siege of Damietta.
• 1250, February 8: This day marks the end of the Crusader advance during the Seventh Crusade: Battle of al-Mansurah, a disastrous defeat. Crusaders led by King Louis IX of France move from Damietta to Cairo along the Nile River until they meet Emir Fakr-ed-din at the head of a army of 70,000 at Ashmoun Canal by the town of al-Mansurah. This is the same spot where the Fifth Crusade had met defeat. After a standoff of six weeks, a local Coptic Christian shows the Crusaders a way to cross the canal and in a surprise attack they route the Egyptians still in their encampment. Unfortunately, the French choose to follow the fleeing Egyptians to al-Mansurah despite the lack of reinforcements and they suffer heavy casualties in the process. Robert of Artois (brother of Louis IX) and William of Salisbury (leading an English force) are both killed along with most of the Knights Templar who had followed them.
• April 06: Battle of Fariskur: King Louis IX is captured along with his army and ransomed in exchange for the surrender of Damietta - the only real achievement of the Crusade. Louis is lucky to be released at all because the difficulty with caring for the large numbers of prisoners led to the Egyptians executing many of them. This is the final battle in the Seventh Crusade. Louis IX sails to Palestine where he works on rebuilding the defenses of the Latin Kingdom (1250-54).
• May: Turanshah, the last Ayyubid Sultan of Egypt in a dynasty founded by Saladin, is murdered and replaced by his Mamluk slave-general Aibek, founder of the Mamluk Dynasty. King Louis IX would actually form an alliance with the Mamluks shortly after this. The word "Mamluk" literally means "one who is owned" or "slave", a reference to the fact that the Mamluks started out as slaves.
• Henri I de Lusignan (Cyprus) marries Plaisance de Poitiers.
• Emperor Frederick II dies. Both William of Holland and Frederick II's son Conrad IV claim succession.
• By now there are about 4000 Christian Vikings in Greenland.
• 1251: The last of the Egyptian-based dynasties, the Mamluk dynasty, took over the caliphate until 1517 when Egypt fell under the control of the Ottoman Turkish Empire.
• The first "Crusade of the Shepherds" is launched.
• 1251-61: Archbishop of Nicosia: Ugo di Fagiano.
• 1251: Alexander III of Scotland (age ten) marries Margaret daughter of King Henry III of England.
• 1252: Hugues II, son of Henri I, born. Pope Innocent IV officially sanctions the use of torture to obtain "truth" from suspects. The Teutonic Knights capture the Lithuanian city of Klaipeda from local pagans. Lithuania would be access to the Baltic Sea until the 20th century.
• 1253: Henri I de Lusignan dies. Hugues II, son of Henri I, made King of Cyprus and Lord of The Kingdom of Jerusalem.
• Pagan leader Mindaugas of Lithuania agrees to convert to Christianity.
• Friar William of Rubruck visits the court of the Great Mongol Khan Mongke, creating a detailed description of Mongol customs and beliefs before their conversion to Islam.
• 1254, Apr: Louis IX of France departs the Holy Land.
• Balian d'Ibelin marries Plaisance de Poitiers.
• Edward (called Longshanks, son of Henry III of England) marries Eleanor of Castile.
• Conrad IV (claimant to the title of Emperor) dies.
• Crusade to Prussia of King Ottokar II of Bohemia, Rudolf of Habsburg and Otto of Brandenburg. Foundation of Königsberg.
•November 03: Death of John III Ducas Vatatzes, Byzantine emperor (Empire of Nicaea). He is succeeded by Theodore II Lascaris.
• 1255: Crusades preached against Manfred of Staufen and against Ezzelino and Alberic of Romano.
• The Teutonic Knights build their stronghold of Königsberg.
• May: The last Cathar stronghold - an isolated fort at Quéribus - is captured.
• 1256, January: Hulagu, son of the Great Khan, wipes out the Assassins of Persia.
• 1256-58: War of St Sabas in Acre.
• 1257: Alfonso X, king of Leon and Castile attempts to claim the Holy Roman Empire.
• 1257-67: More clauses on penitents are added to the Templar Rule.
• 1258: Balian d'Ibelin's marriage to Plaisance de Poitiers annulled.
• Henry III of England is forced to agree to the Provisions of Oxford, by which he agrees to share his power with a council of barons. (He had wanted money from the barons.) Henry III soon goes against the agreement, with the support of the Pope. The barons go to war.
• Louis IX of France signs the Treaty of Corbeil, relinquishing to the kingdom of Aragón all French claims to Barcelona and Roussillon, in return for which the Aragonese renounce their claims to parts of Provence and Languedoc.
• Baghdad is captured by the Mongols and the caliph is put in a sack and trampled to death.
• 1258: Birth of Osman, founder of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. His father was Etrogrul, commander of a tribe of Oghuz Turks near the Sea of Marmara.
• February 10: Mongols under the leadership of Hulagu (Hulegu), grandson of Genghis Khan, sack Baghdad, massacre the inhabitants and kill the last 'Abbasid Caliph. The Abbasid period ends with the destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols. The Mongols had tried and failed to take Baghdad in 1245. Now, after a series of devastating floods, the city's defenses had been weakened, and Hulegu, grandson of Genghis Khan, leads the victorious invasion - one which kills an estimated 800,000 citizens of the city. Thus begins a long period of economic, political, and cultural decline in Iraq that is only overcome in the sixteenth century.
• August: Death of Theodore II Lascaris, Byzantine emperor (Empire of Nicaea). He is succeeded by John IV Lascaris, just eight years old. Michael Palaeologus is made regent and later he makes himself co-emperor as Michael VIII.
• 1259: Nicaean Army defeats Latins and Epirots at Pelagonia.
• King Louis IX of France signs the Treaty of Paris with King Henry III of England.
• Latins of Achaea defeated by the Greeks in the Battle of Pelagonia.
• The Great Khan dies.
• Battle of Pelagonia: Greek forces defeat the Latins of Achaea.
• 1260: Mameluks in Egypt.
• Livonian Teutonic Knights defeated by the Lithuanians in the Battle of Durbe. Second Prussian revolt.
• Castilian Crusade to Sali in Morocco.
• September 3: Battle of Ayn Jalut. Invading Mongols are defeated by Mamluks, thus preventing any further Mongol advance into Egypt and North Africa.
• October 23: Baybars (Mameluk) becomes Sultan of Egypt and begins building in Jerusalem.
• 1261: Plaisance de Poitiers of Antioch, wife of Henri I, dies.
• Recapture of Constantinople by Nicaean force and end of Latin Empire.
• July 15: Greeks reoccupy Constantinople.
• July 25: Michael VIII Palaeologus (1224 - 1282) finally drives the Latin rulers out of Constantinople and reestablishes Eastern Orthodox rule after 50 years. To solidify his own position he has John IV Lascaris, last of the Lascaris line and his co-emperor, blinded and thus rendered ineligible to become emperor.
• 1263: The Norsemen attempt to invade Scotland, but are prevented from succeeding by Alexander III of Scotland.
• Mindaugas, first and only Christian king of Lithuania, is assassinated by his pagan cousin Treniota.
• 1264: A judgement called Mise of Amiens is passed by Louis IX, King of France, who is called into arbitrate between Henry III and the barons. The Mise of Amiens favors King Henry III, and the barons go to war. Henry III is taken prisoner.
• 1265: Henry III's son Edward (later Edward I, called Longshanks) leads the royal troops against the barons.
• Baibars, Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, captures Caesarea and Haifa.
• 1265-66: Crusade of Charles of Anjou to southern Italy.
• 1266, February 26: The Battle of Benevento takes place.
• Alexander III of Scotland makes peace with the Norsemen and marries the daughter of the King of Norway.
• Safed is conquered by the Mamluks. Feb 26: Battle of Benevento.
• 1267: Edward (called Longshanks) and the barons make peace, and Henry III is restored to the throne of England.
• Hugues II de Lusignan dies. Hugues III, cousin of Hugues II, made King of Cyprus and Jerusalem.
• King Louis IX of France, disturbed by the many gains of the Mamluks in Egypt, calls for a new Crusade.
• 1268, May 18: The Mamluks of Egypt under the command of Sultan Baibars take the city of Antioch and kill most of its inhabitants. The physical destruction of the city is so extensive that it would never again play an important strategic or commercial role in the region, eventually being overtaken by the port city of Alexandretta (Iskenderun).
• After 1268: The Catalan Rule of the Templars.
• Baibars, Sultan of Egypt, captures the city of Jaffa.
• August 23: The Battle of Tagliacozzo occurs.
• 1269: Aragonese Crusade to Palestine.
•The Almohad (al-Muwahhidun) Dynasty falls. Taking the name "the Unitarians," this was a group of Berber Muslims which had supplanted the Almoravid (al-Murabitun) Dynasty in 1147 and was inspired by the teachings of reformist Berber scholar Ibn Tumart.
1270-1272: The Eighth Crusade. Led by King Louis IX of France, the Seventh and Eighth Crusades were complete failures. In the Seventh Crusade Louis sailed to Egypt in 1248 and recaptured Damietta, but after he and his army were routed he had to return it as well as a massive ransom just to get free. In 1270 he set off on the Eighth Crusade, landing in North Africa in the hope of converting the sultan of Tunis to Christianity but died before he got far.
• 1270: Edward (called Longshanks) leaves for the eighth Crusade.
• June 30: King Louis IX of France (Saint Louis) leads the Eighth Crusade (his second Crusade) as an attack against Tunisia,but dies en route (Augustus 25) and is reluctantly replaced by his brother Charles of Anjou, King of Sicily. His son, Philip III of France (called 'The Bold', although he is a weak ruler) is crowned.
• 1271, April 08: The Mamluk sultan of Egypt, Baibars, captures the major fortresses of the Hospitallers (Chastel-Blanc), of the Templars (or CHECK: headquarters of the Knights Hospitaller in Syria) (Krak des Chevaliers) and of the Teutonic Knights (Montfort) in Syria.
• Thomas Agni of Cosenza becomes the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem.
• November 21: Edward returns home to England when he hears that his father Henry III has died.
• Marco Polo of Venice travels to China, in court of Kublai Khan (1275–1292), returns to Genoa (1295) and writes "Travels".
1271-72: The Ninth Crusade. King Edward I of England launches the Ninth Crusade against Mamluk sultan Baibers. Edward had travelled to Tunis to join Louis IX but arrived too late, so continued into the Holy Land on his own.
• 1272: Henry III of England dies, and his son Edward I (called Longshanks) is recognized as king, although he is still away at the Eighth Crusade.
• 1273: Edward I of England (called Longshanks) returns from the Crusade and is crowned.
• Rodulf I of Habsburg is elected Holy Roman Emperor. Alfonso X protests Rodulf I's claim, but Pope Gregory X convinces Alfonso X to give up his own claim, in return for Rodulf renouncing his claims to Rome or the papal states.
• October: Death of Baldwin II, the last emperor of the Latin Empire of Constantinople. Baldwin's reign had effectively ended when Michael VIII Palaeologus recaptured Constantinople in 1261, but European leaders continued to recognize his claim. Once he dies, however, the Latin Empire of Constantinople also ceases to exist.
• 1274, May 07: Council of Lyons.
•May 18: The Second Council of Lyon issues its Crusade decree, Constitutiones Pro Zelo Fidei. At the same Council Michael VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor, agreed to a unification of the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Churches.
• The Mongols attempt to invade Japan, but are defeated.
• c. 1275: Foundation of the Order of Santa Marna de Espara.
• 1275: Alexander III of Scotland's wife (daughter of the King of Norway) dies.
• 1276: Henri de Poitiers dies: drowned at sea.
• 1277: Balian d'Ibelin dies. Maria of Antioch sells her rights of ascendancy to the crown of Jerusalem to Charles of Anjou.
• July 01: Baibars (Baybars) , Sultan of Egypt, dies.
• September: Charles' vicar arrives in Acre. Kingdom split.
• 1278: With aid from Hungary, Holy Roman Emperor Rodulf I defeats his opponent Ottokar.
• 1279: Syrian leader Qalawun succeeds Baibars as Sultan of Egypt.
• 1281: The Mongols attempt to invade Japan, but are defeated.
• Qalawun, Sultan of Egypt, defeats a Mongol army near Homs.
• 1282, March 30: Sicilian Vespers: defeat of Charles of Anjou. Isabella of Ibelin, Lady of Beirut, wife of Hughes II, dies.
• 1283-1302: Crusade against Sicilians and Aragonese.
• 1284: Hugues III de Lusignan dies. Jean I, son of Hugues III, made King of Cyprus and Jerusalem.
• Edward I of England annexes Wales to England.
• The Teutonic Knights complete their conquest of Prussia, eliminating the local Prussian population as an independent ethnic group. The Prussians would be assimilated by the Germans, Poles, and Lithuanians while the Prussian name would be adopted by the Germans for themselves.
• 1285: French Crusade against Aragon: Philip III of France fails an attempt at annexing the kingdom of Aragon.
• Philip III of France dies, and his son Philip IV of France (called The Fair) is crowned.
• Jean I de Lusignan dies. Henri II, brother of Jean I, made King of Cyprus and Jerusalem.
• 1286: Alexander III of Scotland dies falling from a cliff during a storm. His granddaughter Margaret "the Maid of Norway" succeeds him.
• June 4: Kingdom of Jerusalem reunited under King Henry II of Cyprus.
• 1287, June 18: Crusade to the East of Alice of Blois.
• 1288: Crusade to the East of John of Grailly.
• 1289, April 26: Tripoli falls to the Mamluks under the leadership of Sultan Qalaun.
• 1290: Edward I of England (called Longshanks) expels all Jews from England.
• Margaret 'the Maid of Norway', Queen of Scotland, dies on her voyage to Scotland and thirteen men claim the throne. Edward I of England is called to choose between them, and he chooses the weak John Balliol, knowing that he can control him.
• Crusades to the East of Otto ... (text missing).
• Qalawun, Sultan of Egypt, dies and is succeeded by his son, Al-Ashraf Khalil.
• 1291, April 5: Final siege of Acre by the Mamlukes begins.
• May 18: Guillaume de Beaujeu, last Master of the Temple in Palestine, is killed at the siege of Acre. Hospitaller and Templar headquarters moved from Acre to Cyprus under Grand Master Jacques de Molay. Acre, the last territory in Palestine taken by the first Crusaders, falls to invading Muslim forces (the Mamluks under Sultan Khalil, son of Qalaun). Around 60,000 Christians are believed to have perished. This is the end of a Christian military presence in the Near East and the task of spreading Christianity is left to friars who preach among the people.
• May 28: Acre falls to the Mamlukes who slaughter everyone inside the city.
• July __: Sidon and Beirut fall to the Mamluks.
• • August 14: Templars evacuate Tortosa and the Templar castle of 'Atlit, the last Crusader fortress in Palestine. Château Pelerin is abandoned. The last of the Crusaders are forced out of Egypt by the Mamluks, and the era of the Crusades comes to an end.
• Edward I of England is recognized as overlord of Scotland.
• Rudolf I of Hadsbury, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, dies. The electors elect Adolf of Nassau as king of Germany, and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, instead of Rudolf I's son Albert I.
• Birth of John VI Cantacuzene, Byzantine Emperor who would allow Turkish military forces to first cross into Europe in order to get their aid against a rival for the Byzantine throne.
• 1293: War breaks out between England and France. Edward I of England loses Gascony.
• The Welsh rebel against England.
• 1294: Between 1294 and 1296, Philip IV of France (called The Fair) seizes Guienne (in southwest France) from Edward I of England.
• 1295: King Edward I of England summons the Model Parliament.
• Mongol leader Ghazan Khan converts to Islam, ending the line of Tantric Buddhist rulers.
• 1296: Edward I of England (called Longshanks) invades Scotland, deposes John Balliol from the Scottish throne, taking control of Scotland and proclaims himself king.
• In the bull Clericis Laicos Pope Boniface VII forbids clergy from paying taxes to secular powers. Philip IV of France (called The Fair) retaliates by forbidding the export of coins.
• Pope Boniface VIII issues a Papal Bull which gives the Templars a tax free status on exports and imports to and from Cyprus.
• 1297: Philip IV of France (called The Fair) continues his fight with England, and with England's ally Flanders.
• At the Battle of Cambuskenneth, Scottish patriot William Wallace defeats an English army.
• 1298: Edward I of England (called Longshanks) invades Scotland again to attempt to crush a revolt.
• Albert I (son of Emperor Rudolf I) deposes of Emperor Adolf of Nassau and becomes Emperor.
• The longbow revolutionizes warfare at the Battle of Falkirk.
• 1299: Edward I of England makes peace with France in a treaty that gives Flanders to France, and returns Guienne to England.
• Edward I of England marries Margret, the sister of the French King Philip III.
• Scottish patriot Sir William Wallace is defeated by Edward I of England. Robert the Bruce is one of the four regents of Scotland.
• The city of Venice signs a peace treaty with the Turks.
• 1299 - 1326: Reign of Othman, founder of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. He defeats the Seljuks.

| 1094 and before | 1095-1099 | 1100-1149 | 1150-1188 | 1189-1199 | 1200-1249 | 1250-1299 | 1300 and later |


The Crusader Period The years 1250 - 1299 1248-1254: The Seventh Crusade 1270-1272: The Eighth Crusade 1271-1272: The Ninth Crusade non-illustrated \| 1094 and before \| 1095-1099 \| 1100-1149 \| 1150-1188 \| 1189-1199 \| 1200-1249 \| 1250-1299 \| 1300 and later \| this research is work in progress and is frequently updated \| close window \|
1248-1254: The Seventh Crusade. • Archbishop of Nicosia Eustorge de Montaigu dies at siege of Damietta. • 1250, February 8: This day marks the end of the Crusader advance during the Seventh Crusade: Battle of al-Mansurah, a disastrous defeat. Crusaders led by King Louis IX of France move from Damietta to Cairo along the Nile River until they meet Emir Fakr-ed-din at the head of a army of 70,000 at Ashmoun Canal by the town of al-Mansurah. This is the same spot where the Fifth Crusade had met defeat. After a standoff of six weeks, a local Coptic Christian shows the Crusaders a way to cross the canal and in a surprise attack they route the Egyptians still in their encampment. Unfortunately, the French choose to follow the fleeing Egyptians to al-Mansurah despite the lack of reinforcements and they suffer heavy casualties in the process. Robert of Artois (brother of Louis IX) and William of Salisbury (leading an English force) are both killed along with most of the Knights Templar who had followed them. • April 06: Battle of Fariskur: King Louis IX is captured along with his army and ransomed in exchange for the surrender of Damietta - the only real achievement of the Crusade. Louis is lucky to be released at all because the difficulty with caring for the large numbers of prisoners led to the Egyptians executing many of them. This is the final battle in the Seventh Crusade. Louis IX sails to Palestine where he works on rebuilding the defenses of the Latin Kingdom (1250-54). • May: Turanshah, the last Ayyubid Sultan of Egypt in a dynasty founded by Saladin, is murdered and replaced by his Mamluk slave-general Aibek, founder of the Mamluk Dynasty. King Louis IX would actually form an alliance with the Mamluks shortly after this. The word "Mamluk" literally means "one who is owned" or "slave", a reference to the fact that the Mamluks started out as slaves. • Henri I de Lusignan (Cyprus) marries Plaisance de Poitiers. • Emperor Frederick II dies. Both William of Holland and Frederick II's son Conrad IV claim succession. • By now there are about 4000 Christian Vikings in Greenland. • 1251: The last of the Egyptian-based dynasties, the Mamluk dynasty, took over the caliphate until 1517 when Egypt fell under the control of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. • The first "Crusade of the Shepherds" is launched. • 1251-61: Archbishop of Nicosia: Ugo di Fagiano. • 1251: Alexander III of Scotland (age ten) marries Margaret daughter of King Henry III of England. • 1252: Hugues II, son of Henri I, born. Pope Innocent IV officially sanctions the use of torture to obtain "truth" from suspects. The Teutonic Knights capture the Lithuanian city of Klaipeda from local pagans. Lithuania would be access to the Baltic Sea until the 20th century. • 1253: Henri I de Lusignan dies. Hugues II, son of Henri I, made King of Cyprus and Lord of The Kingdom of Jerusalem. • Pagan leader Mindaugas of Lithuania agrees to convert to Christianity. • Friar William of Rubruck visits the court of the Great Mongol Khan Mongke, creating a detailed description of Mongol customs and beliefs before their conversion to Islam. • 1254, Apr: Louis IX of France departs the Holy Land. • Balian d'Ibelin marries Plaisance de Poitiers. • Edward (called Longshanks, son of Henry III of England) marries Eleanor of Castile. • Conrad IV (claimant to the title of Emperor) dies. • Crusade to Prussia of King Ottokar II of Bohemia, Rudolf of Habsburg and Otto of Brandenburg. Foundation of Königsberg. •November 03: Death of John III Ducas Vatatzes, Byzantine emperor (Empire of Nicaea). He is succeeded by Theodore II Lascaris. • 1255: Crusades preached against Manfred of Staufen and against Ezzelino and Alberic of Romano. • The Teutonic Knights build their stronghold of Königsberg. • May: The last Cathar stronghold - an isolated fort at Quéribus - is captured. • 1256, January: Hulagu, son of the Great Khan, wipes out the Assassins of Persia. • 1256-58: War of St Sabas in Acre. • 1257: Alfonso X, king of Leon and Castile attempts to claim the Holy Roman Empire. • 1257-67: More clauses on penitents are added to the Templar Rule. • 1258: Balian d'Ibelin's marriage to Plaisance de Poitiers annulled. • Henry III of England is forced to agree to the Provisions of Oxford, by which he agrees to share his power with a council of barons. (He had wanted money from the barons.) Henry III soon goes against the agreement, with the support of the Pope. The barons go to war. • Louis IX of France signs the Treaty of Corbeil, relinquishing to the kingdom of Aragón all French claims to Barcelona and Roussillon, in return for which the Aragonese renounce their claims to parts of Provence and Languedoc. • Baghdad is captured by the Mongols and the caliph is put in a sack and trampled to death. • 1258: Birth of Osman, founder of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. His father was Etrogrul, commander of a tribe of Oghuz Turks near the Sea of Marmara. • February 10: Mongols under the leadership of Hulagu (Hulegu), grandson of Genghis Khan, sack Baghdad, massacre the inhabitants and kill the last 'Abbasid Caliph. The Abbasid period ends with the destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols. The Mongols had tried and failed to take Baghdad in 1245. Now, after a series of devastating floods, the city's defenses had been weakened, and Hulegu, grandson of Genghis Khan, leads the victorious invasion - one which kills an estimated 800,000 citizens of the city. Thus begins a long period of economic, political, and cultural decline in Iraq that is only overcome in the sixteenth century. • August: Death of Theodore II Lascaris, Byzantine emperor (Empire of Nicaea). He is succeeded by John IV Lascaris, just eight years old. Michael Palaeologus is made regent and later he makes himself co-emperor as Michael VIII. • 1259: Nicaean Army defeats Latins and Epirots at Pelagonia. • King Louis IX of France signs the Treaty of Paris with King Henry III of England. • Latins of Achaea defeated by the Greeks in the Battle of Pelagonia. • The Great Khan dies. • Battle of Pelagonia: Greek forces defeat the Latins of Achaea. • 1260: Mameluks in Egypt. • Livonian Teutonic Knights defeated by the Lithuanians in the Battle of Durbe. Second Prussian revolt. • Castilian Crusade to Sali in Morocco. • September 3: Battle of Ayn Jalut. Invading Mongols are defeated by Mamluks, thus preventing any further Mongol advance into Egypt and North Africa. • October 23: Baybars (Mameluk) becomes Sultan of Egypt and begins building in Jerusalem. • 1261: Plaisance de Poitiers of Antioch, wife of Henri I, dies. • Recapture of Constantinople by Nicaean force and end of Latin Empire. • July 15: Greeks reoccupy Constantinople. • July 25: Michael VIII Palaeologus (1224 - 1282) finally drives the Latin rulers out of Constantinople and reestablishes Eastern Orthodox rule after 50 years. To solidify his own position he has John IV Lascaris, last of the Lascaris line and his co-emperor, blinded and thus rendered ineligible to become emperor. • 1263: The Norsemen attempt to invade Scotland, but are prevented from succeeding by Alexander III of Scotland. • Mindaugas, first and only Christian king of Lithuania, is assassinated by his pagan cousin Treniota. • 1264: A judgement called Mise of Amiens is passed by Louis IX, King of France, who is called into arbitrate between Henry III and the barons. The Mise of Amiens favors King Henry III, and the barons go to war. Henry III is taken prisoner. • 1265: Henry III's son Edward (later Edward I, called Longshanks) leads the royal troops against the barons. • Baibars, Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, captures Caesarea and Haifa. • 1265-66: Crusade of Charles of Anjou to southern Italy. • 1266, February 26: The Battle of Benevento takes place. • Alexander III of Scotland makes peace with the Norsemen and marries the daughter of the King of Norway. • Safed is conquered by the Mamluks. Feb 26: Battle of Benevento. • 1267: Edward (called Longshanks) and the barons make peace, and Henry III is restored to the throne of England. • Hugues II de Lusignan dies. Hugues III, cousin of Hugues II, made King of Cyprus and Jerusalem. • King Louis IX of France, disturbed by the many gains of the Mamluks in Egypt, calls for a new Crusade. • 1268, May 18: The Mamluks of Egypt under the command of Sultan Baibars take the city of Antioch and kill most of its inhabitants. The physical destruction of the city is so extensive that it would never again play an important strategic or commercial role in the region, eventually being overtaken by the port city of Alexandretta (Iskenderun). • After 1268: The Catalan Rule of the Templars. • Baibars, Sultan of Egypt, captures the city of Jaffa. • August 23: The Battle of Tagliacozzo occurs. • 1269: Aragonese Crusade to Palestine. •The Almohad (al-Muwahhidun) Dynasty falls. Taking the name "the Unitarians," this was a group of Berber Muslims which had supplanted the Almoravid (al-Murabitun) Dynasty in 1147 and was inspired by the teachings of reformist Berber scholar Ibn Tumart. 1270-1272: The Eighth Crusade. Led by King Louis IX of France, the Seventh and Eighth Crusades were complete failures. In the Seventh Crusade Louis sailed to Egypt in 1248 and recaptured Damietta, but after he and his army were routed he had to return it as well as a massive ransom just to get free. In 1270 he set off on the Eighth Crusade, landing in North Africa in the hope of converting the sultan of Tunis to Christianity but died before he got far. • 1270: Edward (called Longshanks) leaves for the eighth Crusade. • June 30: King Louis IX of France (Saint Louis) leads the Eighth Crusade (his second Crusade) as an attack against Tunisia,but dies en route (Augustus 25) and is reluctantly replaced by his brother Charles of Anjou, King of Sicily. His son, Philip III of France (called 'The Bold', although he is a weak ruler) is crowned. • 1271, April 08: The Mamluk sultan of Egypt, Baibars, captures the major fortresses of the Hospitallers (Chastel-Blanc), of the Templars (or CHECK: headquarters of the Knights Hospitaller in Syria) (Krak des Chevaliers) and of the Teutonic Knights (Montfort) in Syria. • Thomas Agni of Cosenza becomes the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem. • November 21: Edward returns home to England when he hears that his father Henry III has died. • Marco Polo of Venice travels to China, in court of Kublai Khan (1275–1292), returns to Genoa (1295) and writes "Travels". 1271-72: The Ninth Crusade. King Edward I of England launches the Ninth Crusade against Mamluk sultan Baibers. Edward had travelled to Tunis to join Louis IX but arrived too late, so continued into the Holy Land on his own. • 1272: Henry III of England dies, and his son Edward I (called Longshanks) is recognized as king, although he is still away at the Eighth Crusade. • 1273: Edward I of England (called Longshanks) returns from the Crusade and is crowned. • Rodulf I of Habsburg is elected Holy Roman Emperor. Alfonso X protests Rodulf I's claim, but Pope Gregory X convinces Alfonso X to give up his own claim, in return for Rodulf renouncing his claims to Rome or the papal states. • October: Death of Baldwin II, the last emperor of the Latin Empire of Constantinople. Baldwin's reign had effectively ended when Michael VIII Palaeologus recaptured Constantinople in 1261, but European leaders continued to recognize his claim. Once he dies, however, the Latin Empire of Constantinople also ceases to exist. • 1274, May 07: Council of Lyons. •May 18: The Second Council of Lyon issues its Crusade decree, Constitutiones Pro Zelo Fidei. At the same Council Michael VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine Emperor, agreed to a unification of the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Churches. • The Mongols attempt to invade Japan, but are defeated. • c. 1275: Foundation of the Order of Santa Marna de Espara. • 1275: Alexander III of Scotland's wife (daughter of the King of Norway) dies. • 1276: Henri de Poitiers dies: drowned at sea. • 1277: Balian d'Ibelin dies. Maria of Antioch sells her rights of ascendancy to the crown of Jerusalem to Charles of Anjou. • July 01: Baibars (Baybars) , Sultan of Egypt, dies. • September: Charles' vicar arrives in Acre. Kingdom split. • 1278: With aid from Hungary, Holy Roman Emperor Rodulf I defeats his opponent Ottokar. • 1279: Syrian leader Qalawun succeeds Baibars as Sultan of Egypt. • 1281: The Mongols attempt to invade Japan, but are defeated. • Qalawun, Sultan of Egypt, defeats a Mongol army near Homs. • 1282, March 30: Sicilian Vespers: defeat of Charles of Anjou. Isabella of Ibelin, Lady of Beirut, wife of Hughes II, dies. • 1283-1302: Crusade against Sicilians and Aragonese. • 1284: Hugues III de Lusignan dies. Jean I, son of Hugues III, made King of Cyprus and Jerusalem. • Edward I of England annexes Wales to England. • The Teutonic Knights complete their conquest of Prussia, eliminating the local Prussian population as an independent ethnic group. The Prussians would be assimilated by the Germans, Poles, and Lithuanians while the Prussian name would be adopted by the Germans for themselves. • 1285: French Crusade against Aragon: Philip III of France fails an attempt at annexing the kingdom of Aragon. • Philip III of France dies, and his son Philip IV of France (called The Fair) is crowned. • Jean I de Lusignan dies. Henri II, brother of Jean I, made King of Cyprus and Jerusalem. • 1286: Alexander III of Scotland dies falling from a cliff during a storm. His granddaughter Margaret "the Maid of Norway" succeeds him. • June 4: Kingdom of Jerusalem reunited under King Henry II of Cyprus. • 1287, June 18: Crusade to the East of Alice of Blois. • 1288: Crusade to the East of John of Grailly. • 1289, April 26: Tripoli falls to the Mamluks under the leadership of Sultan Qalaun. • 1290: Edward I of England (called Longshanks) expels all Jews from England. • Margaret 'the Maid of Norway', Queen of Scotland, dies on her voyage to Scotland and thirteen men claim the throne. Edward I of England is called to choose between them, and he chooses the weak John Balliol, knowing that he can control him. • Crusades to the East of Otto ... (text missing). • Qalawun, Sultan of Egypt, dies and is succeeded by his son, Al-Ashraf Khalil. • 1291, April 5: Final siege of Acre by the Mamlukes begins. • May 18: Guillaume de Beaujeu, last Master of the Temple in Palestine, is killed at the siege of Acre. Hospitaller and Templar headquarters moved from Acre to Cyprus under Grand Master Jacques de Molay. Acre, the last territory in Palestine taken by the first Crusaders, falls to invading Muslim forces (the Mamluks under Sultan Khalil, son of Qalaun). Around 60,000 Christians are believed to have perished. This is the end of a Christian military presence in the Near East and the task of spreading Christianity is left to friars who preach among the people. • May 28: Acre falls to the Mamlukes who slaughter everyone inside the city. • July __: Sidon and Beirut fall to the Mamluks. • • August 14: Templars evacuate Tortosa and the Templar castle of 'Atlit, the last Crusader fortress in Palestine. Château Pelerin is abandoned. The last of the Crusaders are forced out of Egypt by the Mamluks, and the era of the Crusades comes to an end. • Edward I of England is recognized as overlord of Scotland. • Rudolf I of Hadsbury, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, dies. The electors elect Adolf of Nassau as king of Germany, and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, instead of Rudolf I's son Albert I. • Birth of John VI Cantacuzene, Byzantine Emperor who would allow Turkish military forces to first cross into Europe in order to get their aid against a rival for the Byzantine throne. • 1293: War breaks out between England and France. Edward I of England loses Gascony. • The Welsh rebel against England. • 1294: Between 1294 and 1296, Philip IV of France (called The Fair) seizes Guienne (in southwest France) from Edward I of England. • 1295: King Edward I of England summons the Model Parliament. • Mongol leader Ghazan Khan converts to Islam, ending the line of Tantric Buddhist rulers. • 1296: Edward I of England (called Longshanks) invades Scotland, deposes John Balliol from the Scottish throne, taking control of Scotland and proclaims himself king. • In the bull Clericis Laicos Pope Boniface VII forbids clergy from paying taxes to secular powers. Philip IV of France (called The Fair) retaliates by forbidding the export of coins. • Pope Boniface VIII issues a Papal Bull which gives the Templars a tax free status on exports and imports to and from Cyprus. • 1297: Philip IV of France (called The Fair) continues his fight with England, and with England's ally Flanders. • At the Battle of Cambuskenneth, Scottish patriot William Wallace defeats an English army. • 1298: Edward I of England (called Longshanks) invades Scotland again to attempt to crush a revolt. • Albert I (son of Emperor Rudolf I) deposes of Emperor Adolf of Nassau and becomes Emperor. • The longbow revolutionizes warfare at the Battle of Falkirk. • 1299: Edward I of England makes peace with France in a treaty that gives Flanders to France, and returns Guienne to England. • Edward I of England marries Margret, the sister of the French King Philip III. • Scottish patriot Sir William Wallace is defeated by Edward I of England. Robert the Bruce is one of the four regents of Scotland. • The city of Venice signs a peace treaty with the Turks. • 1299 - 1326: Reign of Othman, founder of the Ottoman Turkish Empire. He defeats the Seljuks. \| 1094 and before \| 1095-1099 \| 1100-1149 \| 1150-1188 \| 1189-1199 \| 1200-1249 \| 1250-1299 \| 1300 and later \|